Middle School vs. High School Essay

One, the end of one’s evaluation school years, and the other, a passage to youthful adulthood. Center school and High school, two significant occasions of a youthful person’s life, share a few similitudes and numerous distinctions. Center school, much the same as its title clarifies, is when understudies are stuck in adolescence and youthful adulthood. Individuals begin to develop from prior basic years, and attempt to discover what their identity is. While during the time spent attempting to fit in, new companion bunches are molded and as opposed to being one major gathering of individuals, circles structure and gatherings are isolated. Notwithstanding more schoolmates and educators, obligations increment as understudies assume the heap of various classes, and now get grades for their work. Instructors anticipate that them should take an interest effectively in class, and complete their assignments on schedule. Despite the fact that it just keeps going 3 years, center school is the basic transitional period when new instructors, new schoolmates, more classes, and more work are acquainted all with set you up for secondary school. After eighth grade, individuals leave the center school air pocket, and advance to the wilderness of secondary school. Not exclusively is the grounds truly bigger, yet class sizes increment, and extraordinary desires join it. Albeit center school may have appeared to be a test, secondary school accompanies indeed more work and more duties. For understudies, secondary school is a do or die second, and some battle to remain above water. Some may experience difficulty centering in school, however the perfect understudy is finishing their schoolwork on schedule, reading for their tests, going to rehearse for their extracurricular exercises, and accomplishing a decent evaluation point normal, that will all result and get them into their fantasy school. Not exclusively is the work distinctive between the two situations, however so is the measure of opportunity understudies get. In center school, kids are controlled to a specific educational plan. The timetable they get, is the calendar they get, and nothing is evolving. Some portion of their calendar, lunch, is likewise a period that is additionally totally different in center school. All understudies are required to have lunch in a similar room simultaneously, and snacks incorporate a decision between secret meat, or last week’s franks camouflaged as soup. In spite of center school, in secondary school, understudies are allowed substantially more opportunity. Understudies can pick which classes they will take, what educators they have, what gatherings or clubs they will take an interest in, what sports they will play, and considerably more. Not exclusively would students be able to pick the entirety of their exercises, however understudies additionally have numerous choices for what they need to eat. Secondary schools frequently convey well known nourishments, for example, tram, burgers, and French fries, and sound food sources, for example, organic product, and plates of mixed greens. Just in the event that the school food isn't sufficient, numerous secondary schools regularly permit upperclassman to leave for lunch to appreciate a supper in their own home, or food from another eatery. Generally speaking, secondary school and center school are both made to get ready understudies for advanced education, however are totally different in numerous angles. As we as a whole develop more seasoned, we can perceive how we have changed from center school to secondary school, and can see the numerous qualifications between the two.

Marine management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marine administration - Essay Example Issues, for example, diminished efficiency and elevated dangers to injury in the workplace would all be able to result from the previously mentioned issues, managing them and forestalling the commitment of representatives to them is basic. The rate at which organizations lose cash through innumerable medical advantages to unpleasant and exhausted staff is disturbing. Sound representatives need less medical advantages and are exceptionally beneficial. Directors and heads of organizations the same need to make sense of how to check this danger. Business related wounds are on the expansion and are constantly recorded high when most laborers stay at work longer than required and have less break to diminish the weakness or take part in exercises that can decrease the degrees of stress. My organization, as this paper talks about underneath, has just evolved countermeasures to the above issues. The progressions we have acknowledged can not exclusively be told through the satisfaction of all members in the organization yet additionally through the benefits we have collected in the ongoing past. There are a few reasons for both exhaustion and worry as recorded underneath. Weakness itself is brought about by broadened times of physical or even mental effort with less time to recoup through rest. Typically, a specific degree of exhaustion is ordinary, be that as it may, when the levels are excessively high, there must be a lot of detriments. These degrees of exhaustion can be because of the accompanying: Significant levels of weariness and stress regularly prompts diminished efficiency. This is commonly the most concerning issue with the two. Additionally, since stress and weakness may disable a person’s sense, including that of peril, representatives run dangers of mishaps and wounds in the workplace. Studies show that remaining wakeful for more than 17 hours has as much negative consequences for the general execution of an individual’s execution as having about 0.05% liquor content in blood. An additional four hours pairs the liquor content figure to 0.1% (Williamson et al. 320). It is essential to call attention to that the two representatives and

Announcing Free LSAT Prep for All

Announcing Free LSAT Prep for All We’re proud to announce we’ll soon offer free, personalized LSAT prep for all.Every year, more than 100,000 people take the LSAT, the Law School Admission Test. Many test takers have traditionally paid for test prep, which can cost hundreds or even thousands of dollars. Were excited to offer a free LSAT practice program designed to help students with the skills they find challenging so that they can show up on test day ready to rock the LSAT.What’s more, we’re doing this by partnering with the maker of the LSAT, the Law School Admission Council. By working with the maker of the exam, we can help many more people learn the skills they need to do well on the LSAT, in law school, and their careers.We’re honored the Law School Admission Council has chosen to partner with us, and we’re excited to work together to help level the playing field.Todays announcement continues our tradition of providing free, official practice for standardized exams. In 2015, Khan Academy launched f ree Official SAT Practice with the maker of the SAT, the College Board. More than three million students have used Official SAT Practice at roughly equal rates across income levels, race, ethnicity and gender.As always, our mission is to provide a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere. We think free LSAT prep aligns perfectly with our goals. Look for it on Khan Academy in late 2018.

The Ethical Implications Of Embryonic Stem Cell Therapy

The advancement of embryonic stem cell therapies and transplants has drastically changed the realm of medical research. However, the use of human embryos is an ethical concern among researchers around the world. There are several benefits for embryonic stem cells therapy. Embryonic stem cells are beneficial to researchers due to their unique ability to replicate themselves and make specialized cells for any tissue in the body. These cells serve as a potential to cure various diseases and disabilities that threaten the survival of humankind. Since the early 1960’s, there have been ethical deliberations behind the destruction of the embryo. The FDA has stepped in many times throughout the years due to the moral implications of the use of†¦show more content†¦The moral status of the embryo and the exact age when an embryo is considered human is essential in establishing a common ground for research. Pro-life supporters oppose any form of research in embryos. Pro-life su pporters base their arguments and opinions primarily on religious beliefs. Richard Doerflinger, Associate Director of Pro-Life Activities at the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, expresses his opinions in â€Å"The Ethics of Funding Embryonic Stem Cell Research: A Catholic Viewpoint.† Doerflinger argues that research should not be conducted, due its infringement upon many religions. The opposing perspective, Suzanna Holland, MIT researcher, in Human Embryonic Stem Cell Debate : Science, Ethics, and Public Policy argues that research on embryos is necessary for scientific advancement and progression, in order to find treatments for life-threatening ailments. Due to the strong opinions of pro-life supporters there is difficulty among legislation to determine the moral standpoint of embryos. Upon examining the perspectives of Doerflinger and Holland, It is clear pro-life supporters are impeding embryonic stem cell research due to their moral concerns, whereas the cen tral concern is scientific. The argument of an embryo being considered human is one of key points in the ethical debates about embryonic research. The issue, which has profound implications for medical breakthroughs, has

The Registered Nurse Performing A Health Assessment On A...

You are the registered nurse performing a health assessment on a newborn infant. From the functional health pattern portion of the assessment, you learn the mother is reluctant to breastfeed her baby. How do you respond? Explain the approach you will take to ensure adequate nutrition for the newborn, with or without breastfeeding. Provide rationale for your answer. According to World Health Organization (WHO, 2016), Breastfeeding is the standard and natural method of delivering young infants with the adequate nutrients that is needed and required for healthy growth and development. Breast milk is the best and optimal nutrition for infants, in which there are health benefits for both the infants, mothers, families and communities as whole. According to Rockville the (2011), most women in the United States are aware that, breastfeeding is the optimum source of nutrition for most infants, but lack of adequate knowledge and information about its detailed benefits and the risks associated with not breastfeeding. As a nurse, performing health assessment on a new born baby, I need to first of know the educational level or background of the mother of the new infant, either breastfeeding mother o feeling reluctant to breastfeed in order to know how to approach such mothers. Let me first of say this, there are some mothers that know that, breastfeeding i s good for their babies, but they lack the details of the breastfeeding benefits. I will make sure that such a mother understandsShow MoreRelatedShould the Practice of Skin-to-Skin Contact between Mother and Newborn Continue?2311 Words   |  9 Pagesskin-to-skin contact (SSC) between mother and newborn. It is also called kangaroo care. 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This is exemplifiedRead MoreCommunity Health Nursing4829 Words   |  20 Pages1. Public health systems are operating within a context of ongoing changes, which exert a number of pressures on the public health system. These changes include all of the following, except: A. Health reforms B. Existing and emerging environmental hazards C. New technologies for health care D. None of the above 2. In response to the changes of the times, the UN General Assembly adopted a vision of poverty reduction and sustainable development. This is exemplified in theRead MoreNursing Essay41677 Words   |  167 PagesThe Future of Nursing: Leading Change, Advancing Health http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12956.html Committee on the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Initiative on the Future of Nursing, at the Institute of Medicine PREPUBLICATION COPY: UNCORRECTED PROOFS Copyright  © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. The Future of Nursing: Leading Change, Advancing Health http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12956.html THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001 Read MoreEpidemiology of Hiv14908 Words   |  60 Pagesabout 90% of these infections occurring in sub-Saharan Africa (UNAIDS, 2006) .UNAIDS estimates that approximately 370 000 children were infected with HIV in 2007[1]. More than 90% of these infections were caused by vertical transmission from mother to infant and approximately 90% occurred in Sub Saharan Africa [1]. In the most heavily affected countries, such as South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe, HIV is the underlying reason for more than one third of all deaths among children under the age of fiveRead MoreHesi Practice31088 Words   |  125 Pagesweeks gestation regardless of weight. D. A neonate diagnosed with intrauterine growth retardation. 2. A client with type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus has just learned she s pregnant. 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IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES OCTOBER 29, 2009 Mr. DINGELL (for himself, Mr. RANGEL, Mr. WAXMAN, Mr. GEORGE MILLER of California, Mr. STARK, Mr. PALLONE, and Mr. ANDREWS) introduced the following bill; which was referred to the Committee on Energy and Commerce, and in addition to the Committees on EducationRead MoreFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 Pages With WileyPLUS: Students achieve concept mastery in a rich, structured environment that’s available 24/7 Instructors personalize and manage their course more effectively with assessment, assignments, grade tracking, and more manage time better study smarter save money From multiple study paths, to self-assessment, to a wealth of interactive visual and audio resources, WileyPLUS gives you everything you need to personalize the teaching and learning experience.  » F i n d o u t h ow t o MRead More_x000C_Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis355457 Words   |  1422 Pagescan be submitted by e-mail to thomsonrights@thomson.com. 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Vinamilk Field Trip Free Essays

Ho Chi Minh International University School of Business Administration Ho Chi Minh International University School of Business Administration REPORT on FIELDTRIP Group: Name Student’s ID Nguy? n Khanh An Tr? n Quang Ngan BAIU08057 Tr? n Minh Thanh BAIU08069 Hu? nh Ng? c Thanh Truc BAIU08078 Nguy? n Hu? nh Qu? c Nh? t Report on Fieldtrip BAIU08214 BAIU08103 Page 1 Ho Chi Minh International University School of Business Administration QUESTION OF REPORT ON FIELDTRIP 1. Describe the factory of Vinamilk. What is the most impressive that you’ve seen in the fieldtrip? 2. We will write a custom essay sample on Vinamilk Field Trip or any similar topic only for you Order Now What are the difficulties that Vinamilk may have while exporting to Iraq? Your suggestions to overcome. Some Brief about Vinamilk Corp. Vinamilk is the biggest dairy company in Vietnam. Based on the UNDP 2007 report, it is also the 15th largest company in Vietnam. Established in 1976, Vietnam Dairy Products Joint Stock Company (VINAMILK) has since grown s trongly and become the leading business of the milk processing industry, now occupying 75% of the milk market share in Vietnam. In addition to strong domestic distribution with a network of 183 agencies throughout all 64 of 64 provinces. Vinamilk products are also exported to Iraq. In most western countries it does not meet the local hygiene standards and is therefore not allowed to be imported. VINAMILK is a state owned enterprise in which the government has 50. 01% of the shares and the rest of the shares are currently active trading at the Ho Chi Minh Stock Exchange. Vinamilk main competitor is Dutch Lady Vietnam, a division of Friesland Foods. Factories Thong Nhat Dairy Factory Truong Tho Dairy Factory Dielac Dairy Factory Saigon Milk Dairy Factory Hanoi Dairy Factory Can Tho Dairy Factory Nghe An Dairy Factory Binh Dinh Dairy Factory Also several joint ventures, such as the $45 million -dollar venture with SABMiller PLC to build a brewery in the Binh Duong province. Awards and achievements 1985 – Labour Medal of Third Ranking. 1991 – Labour Medal of Second Ranking. 1996 – Labour Medal of First Ranking. 2000 – Hero of Socialist Labor of Vietnam. 2001 – Labour Medal of Third Ranking. 2005 – Independence Medal of Third Ranking. Report on Fieldtrip Page 2 Ho Chi Minh International University School of Business Administration 2005 – Labour Medal of Third Ranking. 006 – â€Å"Supreme Cup† from Intellectual Property Association and Association of Small Medium Enterprises, Vietnam. 1995-2007 – Saigon Marketing Newspaper Readers’ Choice Awards. 1 – Describe the factory of Vinamilk. What is the most impressive that you’ve seen in the fieldtrip?  » Th? ng Nh? t Milk factory 12 D? ng Van Bi, Tru? ng Th? Ward, Th? D? c District, HOCHIMINH CITY TEL: (84. 8) 8 960 725 – Fax: (84. 8) 38 963 140 Specialzing in condensed milk, aseptic fresh milk, ice cream, yog urt and drinking yogurt. We are on a trip to Th? ng Nh? t factory. Factory is located in Th? D? c. It seems to be very fresh, don’t have many problem about traffic, polluted†¦ Firstly, we are introduced about their factory, their products and some questions are answer clearly. We realize that they produce a lot of product in that factory. When come to see the place they are working, I see a lot of part of the assembly line. Such as: Getting milk liqid, Sterilizing, Distributing, Adding sugar and other spice. et c†¦ Secondly, they took us to come to see their factory, machine, and explain us all the question about their factory, products†¦ The important thing I impressed is that they have very few people, about 2- 3 workers in a part. That mean their factory is highl y automatic by machine, worker plays a role as a runner. + There are many pipes which milk flow in and come to many part of the manufacture. The liquid flow in the pipes about 30 minutes. This is some of our pictures that are allowed to take in some areas. A room have Pressure- cooker to have the milk fresh. An assembly line is running by a worker. It makes the milk-can come to the machine that pour the milk into. A machine pastes the label. Some of the workers arrange them into package, cotto n bucket. Report on Fieldtrip Page 3 Ho Chi Minh International University School of Business Administration All the process we can see is the machine working, can not smell any about milk. The machine is running so softly that seem to be very peaceful for other s living outside the factory. In brief, we want to say that they working in a regulation way, automatically, and clean. 2 – What are the difficulties that Vinamilk may have while exporting to Iraq? Your suggestions to overcome. We have some information about the relationship of Vinamilk and Iraq. First is Vinamilk’s top export markets are Iraq and Cambodia Vinamilk has made ambitious plans after it reported its record results in 2006. Stiff competition and high raw-material costs failed to dampen Vinamilk’s results. It reported profits of $46 million, or a share price of $0. 28 (up 20. 8 percent over the previous year). As a result, the processor powdered and condensed milk, fresh milk and yoghurt drinks has set targets of 15-20 percent growth of products in 2007. Vinamilk says its major export market is still Iraq, where it maintained an avera ge export value of over $80 million. Meanwhile, Cambodia was its fastest -growing market, reaching a business value of $3 million —up 74 percent compared to 2005. This is some of the difficulties that Vinamilk will face with: Vinamilk doesn’t have their ow n means of transport that will carry their product oversea. Reason: Viet Nam does not have shipping service to transport goods oversea Solution: They will have to sign a contract with a company to s hip goods oversea. Secondly is the time 2003 – 2004, Vinamilk won a contractor with Iraq about supporting milk product. So, the problem is that United Nation permiss them to trade with Iraq. However UN have the rule that goods must have an insurance. Reason: Because of the politics in Iraq is complex, required an insurance for goods Solution: They must sign a contract with an insurance company to have their goods be safety first. Then the product will be regularize to come in Iraq without any problem Third is the complex politics of Iraq and those country in M iddle East. Reason: the war of Iraq and US about mineral -oil Solution: They should study about their culture, the changes of politics situations and then making a decision of exporting. Try to realize the specific charactristics of Iraq’s market. This wil l show us how to react at anytime. Report on Fieldtrip Page 4 Ho Chi Minh International University School of Business Administration Fourth is the quality of milk. Reason: Influence of having melanine (a chemical cause cancer) in milk appear in China. Solution: They must have certification about their producr that it will not have melamine and others extranous matter so that people will find out the best product to use. Last is the chage of price, finiancial situation in the world Reason: There are a price crisis in the world that make some banks go bankrupt. Solution: In some statistics about milk price, We realize that milk price in Viet Nam is highest in the world. Mr. Tr? n Ng? c Dung. E xpert market researcher of FTA said that: The average milk price in many country of East of Europe and South America is 0,4 USD, In China, North America is 0,8 USD. But in Viet Nam is 0,82 USD/kg. So, Vinamilk can decrease the milk price because they buy the milk from farmer in a lower price than any country. Furthermore, they still have profits if they reduce the price and have an advantage in Iraq’s market **** End of the report. Report on Fieldtrip Page 5 How to cite Vinamilk Field Trip, Essay examples

Understanding Crime Mapping and Hot Spots in the United States Essay Sample free essay sample

Crime is a portion of mundane life all over the universe today. There are violent offenses such as slaying. colza. and robbery all the manner down to little. junior-grade offenses such as hooliganism. But in some countries of the universe. offense is much worse than in others. Why is that? This paper will concentrate on understanding hot musca volitanss and offense function throughout the United States. The subjects discussed will be the history of offense function. how offense function is used today. hot musca volitanss in the U. S. . societal disorganisation theories in offense function and hot musca volitanss. the broken Windowss theory. offense bar through vicinity communicating and coverage and analysing offense. Harmonizing to professor Sharon Chamard. the history of offense function traces its beginning back to France in 1829 when Adriano Balbi and Andre Michel Guerry created maps that showed the relationship between violent and belongings offenses and educational degrees ( Chamard. We will write a custom essay sample on Understanding Crime Mapping and Hot Spots in the United States Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 2006 ) . Crime function has been a tool used for patroling for a long clip. Crime function has a long history and it has been adopted on a much broader footing since the coming of desktop computing machines made mapping dramatically easier. Crime mapping engineering has non been without its jobs. nevertheless. The package has lessened the clip and labour required to bring forth maps. the production of sophisticated maps and their integrating into patroling have non been straightforward. But that is to be expected with any new engineering being that no type of engineering is perfect. But it is safe to state that offense function has helped jurisprudence enforcement bureaus significantly. The early maps used by jurisprudence enforcement bureaus before the usage of engineering are illustrations of choropeth maps ( Chamard. 2006 ) . These are maps that show measures of things in countries. These choropleth maps highlights the activities that are go oning in the country. Some maps showed the degrees of instruction. Some maps might demo the degree of offense in the country. Chamard besides found through research that possibly the best known early maps in criminology were created by the Chicago School sociologists Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay ( Chamard. 2006 ) . Shaw and McKay constructed a choropleth map utilizing a aggregation of references of around 3. 000 male delinquents in Chicago for the period 1927 to 1933. The map featured polygon shadowing to bespeak rates of delinquency. Shaw and McKay besides constructed point maps of the locations of the abodes of approximately 10. 000 male delinquents who had been involved in the Chicago juvenile tribunal system from 1934 to 1940. Shaw and McKay noted that the spacial dealingss and distribution of juvenile delinquents’ places remained reasonably changeless over these differing clip spans despite the fact that the juveniles’ households moved to different places in assorted countries of Chicago. There are advantages and disadvantages to the usage of engineering for offense function. Harmonizing to Charmard. before the usage of engineering and computing machines. jurisprudence enforcement bureaus used to execute offense mapping techniques by puting a big map of the metropolis on a wall inside the section. Military officers would so take little acerate leafs and topographic point it into a topographic point on the map to bespeak in the metropolis where the highest offense happened and where the most offi cers needed to be deployed ( Chamard. 2006 ) . Technology alterations in today’s society. such as the addition of the usage of desktop computing machines. has been the chief ground for the recent rapid growing in offense function by American constabulary sections. Desktop computing machines have made the creative activity of maps much faster than the map and acerate leafs. Computerized offense function now relies less on labour-intensive procedures ; it is no longer necessary to pull maps by manus. Pressing merely a few buttons on a keyboard produces similar effects. Desktop computing machines are besides less prone to doing errors than human labourers. However. despite the advantages of computerized offense function. there are disadvantages. First of all. non many constabularies forces had involvement in larning how to utilize the new engineering even those many sections could afford computing machines. Second. important costs exist in puting up a computerized offense function system. including those related to accessing and cleaning informations. importing informations into the GIS. and keeping the GIS. every bit good as related preparation and execution issues ( Mamalian A ; LaVinge. 1999 ) . These costs vary widely depending on the local resources available to the section and the willingness of other sections to portion their methods and techniques of utilizing the engineering planning. These are those sections that have more fiscal resources. clip. preparation. and cognition. as the primary contributing factors in their determination to implement this engineering to other sections. This merely goes to demo that some of the more experient veterans can utilize the map and needle more expeditiously than they would wish utilizing the new computing machines. Crime function plays an of import function in about any signifier of offense analysis and can better the apprehension of the of import relationships between people. location. clip. and offense. Crime function can be used to indicate out specific offense locations. It can help jurisprudence enforcement officers in detecting offense forms. implementing disciplinary schemes. optimising resource allotment and developing offense bar steps ( Hart A ; Zanderburg. 2009 ) . Crime function is particularly of import in countries where heavy and violent condemnable activity is known to happen. This can run anyplace from gang-infested countries or countries along America’s boundary lines where there is heavy organized offense members may seek to smuggle drugs or worlds and the effort of terrorists to come in the United States smuggling arms of mass devastation or other chemical agents. However. it is non adequate to merely hold a offense map. Law enforcement officers need to be able to un derstand and spread out their map-reading accomplishments. As with any type of map. one needs to be able to understand symbols. characteristics. distances. graduated tables. grid coordination. and many other function characteristics. Crime-mapping information has its ain linguistic communication. Harmonizing to Thomas Baker. non understanding the linguistic communication may interfere with informations visual image and reading ( Baker. 2005 ) . Baker explains that the Geographic Information System ( GIS ) is a tool that can be applied within jurisprudence enforcement bureaus to help with function offense. The function technique can be used along with other offense analysis techniques to maintain jurisprudence enforcement officers a measure in front of the wrongdoers. Some analysts define GIS in different ways. One writer for illustration defines GIS as â€Å"a particular instance of information systems where the database consists of observations on spatially distributed characteristics. activities or events. which are definable in infinite as points. lines. or areas† ( Baker. 2005 ) . Another manner that offense function is utile to jurisprudence enforcement is that it helps officers to maintain up with and follow the tendency of offense in the vicinity. For illustration. one peculiar country might be known for robberies at certain hours of the dark. Another country might be known for slaying and gang force during ce rtain hours. Other vicinities could hold a history of houses being broken into. Or there may be a lone wrongdoer that the bureau has intelligence on ; nevertheless. it is a affair of calculating out where this wrongdoer is most likely to strike following. This is why it is of import to be able to understand offense function and the utility of such maps. In Baker’s book. â€Å"Introductory Condemnable Analysis: Crime Prevention and Intervention Strategies† . research workers Velasco and Boba give inside informations about the footings that are associated with offense function concerts. They are a form. which is an agreement of an order of offense ; a tendency which is a specific type of form ; a series which is a tally of similar offenses committed by the same persons ; a fling which is when condemnable activity seems to look continuously ; a hot topographic point which is a little country where offense occurs often ; a hot point which is a victim who repeatedly suffers offense ; a hot merchandise refers to a type of belongings that is the mark of different types of offenses ; and hot marks which are those countries that are victimized but are non included in the definition of hot musca volitanss. hot points. or hot merch andises ( Baker. 2005 ) . What specific plans or tools are used to assist jurisprudence enforcement officers map offense? Harmonizing to research workers. Cynthia Mamalian and Nancy LaVigne. offense function for jurisprudence enforcement officers is acquiring easier. 88 per centum usage commercially available package bundles ; 38 per centum have customized a commercially available mapping application or have developed a usage mapping plan specifically for internal usage ; 89 per centum usage personal or desktop computing machines ; 82 per centum usage the Internet and other technically advanced resources ; and 16 per centum usage Global Positioning Systems to help in their operations ( Mamalian A ; LaVigne. 1999 ) . The usage of offense function should go easier for jurisprudence enforcement officers as clip base on ballss. They have all the technological resources to assist them place hot musca volitanss or lone wrongdoers who set a form all the piece engineering is still quickly progressing. Here in the tw elvemonth 2012. there are upgraded GIS tools and the preparation that comes along with how to utilize these devices. Law enforcement officers must be trained decently in order to be effectual in seting these tools and plans to work. An bureau can hold the best engineering available but if the officers don’t cognize how to utilize the engineering. so it will non be of much usage. There are offenses being committed everyplace in the U. S. today. Even the â€Å"safest† metropolis in America will hold some grade of offense someplace. But there are differences that distinguish the safest metropolis from the most unsafe metropolis as research workers claim. Certain major American metropoliss such as Detroit. Memphis. Los Angeles. and Chicago are merely a few to call that are known for heavy pack and condemnable activity. Some countries of these metropoliss are considered safer than others. Those countries that are to a great extent influenced by condemnable activity is known as a â€Å"hot spot† . A more elaborate definition of a hot topographic point is a specific location or country where an unusual sum of condemnable activity occurs that is committed by one or more wrongdoers ( Baker. 2005 ) . Hots musca volitanss of offense have been examined for some clip now by condemnable justness research workers. Different findings have allowed jurisprudence enforcement officers to set patroling patterns in acknowledgment of hot musca volitanss. One illustration of a known hot topographic point are the gang-infested vicinities of Los Angeles. Old ages of feuding between well-known packs such as the Bloods and the Crips have taken topographic point in the Los Angeles vicinity zones of as Compton. Watts. or The Valley. In Oakland. California. there are physical jobs that help lend to the condemnable activity that takes topographic point in some hot musca volitanss. Harmonizing to Ralph B. Taylor. writer of â€Å"Breaking Away from Broken Windows† . the jobs of these vicinities non merely affect condemnable activity. but they include deteriorated lodging. abandoned lodging. ill maintained belongingss. tonss. pavements. and playgrounds. There is besides graffiti drawn on edifices and flyovers and rubbish along the vicinity streets ( Taylor. 2001 ) . These types of conditions. particularly the derelict belongings. are really suited musca volitanss for the likes of drug traders. robbers. and other possible wrongdoers. For old ages. research workers and constabularies have connected these physical conditions with discourtesies such as drug covering. public imbibing. and public drug usage. This besides affects observant citizens who still live in the country but have non or can non obtained the re sources to travel to new. safer vicinities. In Philadelphia. Pennsylvania. there is heavy juvenile delinquent activity in the Southside. Taylor refers to this activity as â€Å"social incivilities† ( Taylor. 2001 ) . These are street activities that are deemed disorderly. troublesome. and endangering. Activity such as bully teens. public drunkeness. battles on the street. disorderly or ill drug users. and big Numberss of people lounging in dark countries at uneven hours of the dark can all be categorized under societal incivilities. When a vicinity is being overrun by condemnable activity. the issue to concentrate on is how occupants feel about their ain safety and the hereafter of their vicinity. There are several articles and web sites created by writers who explain the hot musca volitanss of New York City. Harmonizing to Lora Krsulich. offense has really been reduced in New York City hot musca volitanss with the usage of hot topographic point policing ( Krsulich. 2011 ) . Hot musca volitanss patroling has besides been positively effectual in the metropoliss of Minneapolis. MN. Jersey City. NJ. Richmond. VA. and Seattle. WA. It is safe to state that hot musca volitanss patroling ratings indicate that concentrating police resources in a peculiar country doesn’t move offense â€Å"around the corner. † and that a brief constabulary patrol can assist to discourage offense most of the clip. Sometimes. jurisprudence enforcement officers can state which vicinities are plagued by condemnable activity without holding to witness a offense. The history of the country. every bit good as observations of how vicinities are kept. can find whether condemnable activity is preva iling in that country or if the country is deemed to be an incivility vicinity. An illustration would be some of the lower category vicinities of Baltimore. Maryland ( Taylor. 2001 ) . Incivility indexs merely intend the feelings that persons will most likely receive when come ining these vicinities. Those who are non familiar with the country may experience a sense of perceived hazard. anxiousness. fright of offense. etc. This can be caused by disorderly behavior seen by juveniles or grownups. graffito taging the district of a pack. broken. abandoned or deteriorated lodging. and streets that are non good maintain. The negative feelings associated with certain vicinities will do it miss in some manner the necessary defender needed to forestall offense ; hence. doing a premier illustration of what is known as the â€Å"Routine Activity Theory† . The Everyday Activity Theory states that a offense is most likely to happen if three elements are present. These three elements are: 1. A likely wrongdoer ; 2. A suited mark ; and 3. A deficiency of a capable defender. A likely wrongdoer may be a juvenile delinquent or a frequent wrongdoer who is known for perpetrating offenses. A suited mark may be in the signifier of a auto that can be stolen or a house that could be broken into. The deficiency of a capable guardian normally comes into drama when citizens have given up looking out for one another’s belongings or merely make non care due to the vicinity being overrun by condemnable activity. Law enforcement every bit good as the community as a whole should look at what causes more offense in certain countries than others. What makes one community more â€Å"safe† than the other? The thing that causes an addition of offense in most communities is what is known as societal disorganisation ( Taylor. 2001 ) . The societal disorganisation theory was created and studied by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay. Shaw and McKay traced societal disorganisation to conditions endemic to the urban countries that were the lone places the freshly geting hapless could afford to populate. There was besides a high rate of residential instability and mixes of people from different cultural backgrounds. Harmonizing to Wayne D. Osgood and Jeff M. Chambers. societal disorganisation theory specifies several variables: residential instability. cultural diverseness. household break. economic position. population size or denseness. and propinquity to urban countries ( Chambers A ; Osgood. 2003 ) . All of these factors influence a community’s capacity to develop and keep strong systems of societal relationships. With residential instability. research workers expected that rates of juvenile force in rural communities would increase as rates of residential instability increased. When the population of an country is invariably altering. the occupants have fewer chances to develop strong. personal ties to one another and to take part in community organisations ( Chambers A ; Osgood. 2003 ) . This has been one of the chief issues that is backed by research on societal disorganisation since its origin. Massive population alteration is besides another underlying consequence on the research of rural scenes. Harmonizing to societal disorganisation theory. it could be expected that. as in urban countries. rates of juvenile force would be higher in rural communities with greater cultural diverseness ( Chambers A ; Osgood. 2003 ) . Harmonizing to Shaw and McKay ( 1942 ) . cultural diverseness interferes with communicating among grownups. Effective communicating may be a job for those with different civilizations and backgrounds because of the deficiency of shared experiences and perchance different jobs. For illustration. a household of African-Americans may see different jobs and society troubles than that of a Mexican-American household. It is of import to separate this theoretically driven hypothesis about heterogeneousness from simple cultural differences in offense rates. In the instance of household break. it is assumed that juvenile delinquency rates are higher among juveniles who grow up in broken places and communities in both rural and urban scenes. Research has shown that positive influences from household and friends will be the early factors in finding whether or non a juvenile tends to prosecute in condemnable behaviour ( Triplett A ; Gainey. 2007 ) . The absence of parents to a kid in the early phases of life will interfere with their ability ability to oversee their kids and communicate with them. Furthermore. the smaller the figure of parents in a community relation to the figure of kids. the more limited the webs of grownup supervising will be for all the kids. The function of economic position in societal disorganisation theory is based on forms of growing in urban countries. Taylor besides explains in his book â€Å"Breaking Away from Broken Windows† the chief constructs to the societal disorganisation theory and the economic dislocation of communities that causes communities to endure from changeless condemnable activity. They are 1. The inability to â€Å"govern† behaviour of its occupants. including kids and teens ; 2. To work toward common ends for the improvement of the community or vicinity. Disorganized communities besides lack sufficient ties to regulating bureaus and resources outside of the community ( Taylor. 2001 ) . These are the vicinities where persons will see more offense. delinquency. and signifiers of hooliganism occur. Abandoned houses and vacant edifices are suited marks for pack or drug activity. Broken places are more likely to bring forth juvenile delinquents due to miss of moral household environment or deficiency of attention from parents. In short. those communities with more entree to local resources and with a common end are more likely to hold less offense and will be more unfastened to the construct of community policing. Children who come from places with loving parents and attention are more than probably non to go juvenile delinquents. Law enforcement officers have been able to map offense and cognize where the most condemnable activity occurs in their well-thought-of metropoliss ; nevertheless. what are they and the citizens of assorted communities making to assist discourage offense? Different steps have been taken to assist discourage offense in the legion hot musca volitanss throughout the United States. Police patrol. vicinity ticker plans. and sources are all of import in assisting locate and prevent condemnable activity. There has even been talk about monitoring vicinities with drones. cameras. and other electronic surveillance. Harmonizing to Gordon Hughes. offense bar is a hard country to trap down both conceptually and through empirical observation given the different significances which are historically associated with it ( Hughes. 1998 ) . With that being said. it is of import for jurisprudence enforcement officers to really carefully detect the theoretical accounts of offense bar and determine which method works best for any given country. Crime can hold utmost negative impacts on a community’s morale every bit good as the concern growing and development. It causes fright of being victimized by those who often buying goods in the country. are involved in community activities. and touristry. Preventing offense is non merely the duty of the constabulary. but besides of those citizens who seek a safe. peaceable environment. Learning effectual ways to discourage offense is the first measure to procuring and keeping low offense rates. One method of offense bar is disincentive. Deterrence as offense bar is about giving wrongdoers the deliberate logical thinking and chance non to perpetrate offenses. Harmonizing to Hughes. this premise provides the important connexion between the discourse of bar and the modern-day thought of situational offense bar ( Hughes. 1998 ) . There are two types of disincentive. They are general disincentive and specific disincentive. General disincentive is intended to deter individuals other than the wrongdoer. from perpetrating a similar discourtesy. In other words. it is directed chiefly to the general populace and can be used to â€Å"make an illustration out of someone† . Specific disincentive is more focussed on the wrongdoer instead than the populace. Specific disincentive is intended to deter the wrongdoer from recidivism. The jurisprudence is considered an of import factor in determining people’s behaviours. The menace of penalty can move as a strong hindrance. Itâ⠂¬â„¢s rather arguable that the effects of offense are a major factor in cut downing condemnable activity. and that strong law-enforcement produces a far more observant society than the deficiency thereof. Another signifier of offense bar is community patroling. Community policing is defined as the coaction between the constabulary and the community that identifies and solves community jobs. With the establishing of community policing. constabulary no longer hold to be the exclusive defenders of jurisprudence and order. Community patroling encourages all citizens of a community to go active in the attempt to heighten the safety and quality of their vicinities. Community policing has far-reaching deductions. The vicinity patrol officer. backed by the constabulary organisation. helps community members mobilize support and resources to work out jobs and heighten their quality of life. Community members voice their concerns. contribute advice. and take action to turn to these concerns. Making a successful community patroling plan will necessitate the energy. creativeness. apprehension. and forbearance of all of those involved. Community-oriented jurisprudence enforcement efforts to cut dow n trust on the 911 system by giving specially trained officers to neighborhood intercession and job resolution ( Taylor. 2001 ) . Another signifier of offense bar is physical bar. The term â€Å"physical prevention† is the construct of taking the physical chances to perpetrate offense. Police in some legal powers started giving out free offense bar advice associating to locks and bolts while local governments with significant public lodging stock obtained funding under the government’s Safer Cities plan for investing in such things as improved street lighting and surveillance ( Lea. 2007 ) . There were some several architectural changes. excessively. For illustration. paseos between blocks of tower block flats were removed. This was done to forestall the flight of burglars. stealers. or robbers. Windows were besides altered in some flats so that the single life there could look out and see the full courtyard. Then there is the construct of â€Å"social prevention† . Social bar is intended to beef up communities and reconstruct informal surveillance and societal control of offense ( Lea. 2007 ) . This involved citizens of assorted communities. peculiarly hapless communities. to take a step of duty for their security. The conservative authorities. from its point of view of emphasizing single duties. tended to believe of communities merely as groups of persons. such as occupants and house proprietors concerned with the care of their belongings. The argument of community groups and the execution of a offense bar policy wasn’t a precedence at first for such communities. This made the authorities feel that the constabulary should be the taking bureau to protect these hapless communities. This lead to jurisprudence enforcement officers promoting occupants of these countries to take portion in what is known today as the â€Å"Neighborhood Watch Program† . This plan is aimed a t enrolling the populace to go the ‘eyes and ears’ of the constabulary. The Neighborhood Watch Program involves groups of occupants prosecuting in surveillance of the streets and describing leery activities or aliens in the country to the constabulary. Parents and other grownups should take the clip to assist and promote the young person of the vicinity to either acquire involved in young person groups or to get down one themselves. Certain neighborhood plans for young person such as â€Å"The Boys and Girls Club† will assist juveniles go more involved with constructive growing and well-being activities instead than being left on the streets with the chance to be influenced by drug traders and other wrongdoers who may seek to act upon them to perpetrate condemnable activity. Harmonizing to Anika Doggett. kids who are rejected by their parents. who grow up in places with considerable struggle. or who are inadequately supervised are at the greatest hazard of going delinquent ( 1996 ) . With that said. it is of import for parents to be at that place for their kids and raise them to allow them cognize that condemnable misconduct will ache them in the long-run. Families are one of the strongest socialization forces in life becaus e they have such a strong influence on the kid at a really early age. Some households teach kids to command unacceptable behaviour. to detain satisfaction. and to esteem the rights of others while some households may learn kids aggressive. antisocial. and violent behaviour. In decision. there will ever be offense in today’s society no affair how much jurisprudence enforcement officers or bureaus are checking down on it. However. there are steps that can be taken that can either significantly cut down offense or it can hold no consequence and offense rates will go on to increase. It is all about how successful jurisprudence enforcement officers are able to pass on with each other and with the community to map the offense. find which countries suffer from the most condemnable activity. and which measures work in diminishing offenses rates every bit good as which methods don’t work. If a certain method does non work. they can non maintain seeking it once more and once more and anticipating different consequences. REFERENCE PAGE Baker. T. ( 2005 ) Introductory condemnable analysis: offense bar and schemes: Pearson instruction Inc. : Upper Saddle River. New jersey Chamard. S. ( 2006 ) The history of offense function and its usage by American Police Departments: hypertext transfer protocol: //justice. uaa. Alaska. edu/forum/23/3fall2006/a_crimemapping. hypertext markup language Chambers. J. M. A ; Osgood W. D. ( 2003 ) Social Disorganization and Rural Communities: hypertext transfer protocol: //www. ncjrs. gov/html/ojjdp/193591/page1. hypertext markup language Doggett. A. ( 1996 ) Juvenile Delinquency and Family Structure: hypertext transfer protocol: //facstaff. elon. edu/ajones5/Anika’s % 20paper. htm Hart. T. C. A ; Zanderburg. P. ( 2009 ) Crime Function: A diary of research and pattern: hypertext transfer protocol: //cacs. unlv. edu/CrimeMapping/ Hughes. G. ( 1998 ) Understanding offense bar: Open university imperativeness: Buckingham. Philadelphia Krsulich. L. ( 2011 ) Targeting resources and cut downing offense through hot musca volitanss patroling: hypertext transfer protocol: //cbkb. org/2011/02/targeting-resources-and-reducing-crime-through-hot-spots-policing/Lea. J. ( 2007 ) Crime Prevention and Community Safety:hypertext transfer protocol: //www. bunker8. pwp. blueyonder. co. uk/cjs/269010. htm Mamalian. C. A. A ; LaVigne. N. G. ( 1999 ) The usage of computerized offense function by jurisprudence enforcement: Survey consequences: hypertext transfer protocol: //faculty. uml. edu/jbyrne/44. 203/Use % 20of % 20Computerized % 20Crime % 20Mapping % 20by % 20Law % 20Enforcement. pdf Taylor. R. B. ( 2001 ) Interrupting off from broken Windowss: Westview imperativeness: Boulder. CO Triplett. A. R. A ; Gainey. R. R. ( 2007 ) Understanding Vicinities and Crime: hypertext transfer protocol: //ww2. odu. edu/ao/instadv/quest/NeighborhoodsCrime. hypertext markup language

Harman Scorecard

Harman Scorecard Harman Scorecard Harman Scorecard According to the Securities and Exchange Commission a comprehensive annual report of a company detailing its public performance is prepared. This is known as Form 10-k annual report. The report clearly defines the history of the business, the products it offers, the organizational structure, equities, subsidiaries, audited financial statements, risk factors involved as well as the legal proceedings of the firm. This essay provides a detailed overview of Harman International industries. The company is a worldwide producer of high quality audio and electronic products. The internal strategic marketing plans adopted by the company provides a broad market under well know brand names. The company is also a leader in digitally integrated info entertainment systems in the automotive industry. The company is divided into various segments to help provision of satisfactory customer service. The segments are well structured ensuring that the professionalism of the company is not affected but the consumer segments are improved. Other segments include the compensation, corporate employees benefit and occupancy cost as well as the company brand identity campaign. The company results of operation depend on the sales of the audio products and electronic system. From here a 10-K report is generated and made public to the shareholders and the authorities. The report covers the sales made in major markets of the company which are situated in Germany and some states in the United States. Since the company has an operational cost of more than $10 million and above 500 shareholders, filing periodic reports is a requirement by the law. This must be done regardless of whether the company securities are traded privately or publicly. Harman International industries being a multinational company provides shareholders with the Form 10-K on demand. Â  The filed report includes the performance of the company across its different markets, future projections as well as a detailed account on how the company deals with market changes. The company’s aggressiveness in acquiring new markets is also shown.. The report also includes market information that is gathered from internal sources, market research as well as publicly available information in the public domain. The provision of a form 10-K based on an estimation is critically risk. This is because of the inherent nature of the uncertainty of the risks. Based on various different factors, the risks fluctuate without cont rol. The following illustrates the contents of Harman International industries 10-K report. The business section includes an outline of the company’s mission and vision, with well detailed information on what the company offers. After a definition of the company’s products, dealings and mission, a section that includes the segments and structure of the organization. The company also defines its strengths and why it is a world class portfolio. The technology it uses to provide quality and authentic software’s to the general public. The final phase in the report includes a projected growth in the company. This is especially useful to contain the current investors in the company while trying to lure new ones. Providing concrete information on ways to acquire production resources at a reduced cost is a key factor to consider in the provision of a Form 10-K. live CHAT

Japanese Translation - Translating from Japanese

Japanese Translation - Translating from Japanese Choosing the right words for a translation can be difficult. Some sentences are translated literally, word by word. However, most sentences can be translated in many different ways. Since Japanese verbs have a formal and informal form and there is also male and female speech, the same sentence can sound quite different depending on how it is translated. Therefore it is important to know the context when translating. Being able to translate can be fun and rewarding when learning a language. After you learn the basics of Japanese, I recommend you to try to translate a sentence yourself first before asking for help. The more you practice, the better you get. Dictionaries You might want have a good English-Japanese/Japanese-English dictionary. Electric dictionaries and online dictionaries are also widely available nowadays. Although standard dictionaries can’t compete for content with an online dictionary, I still like to look up words the old fashion way. Learning about Particles You also need to have a little knowledge about particles. They are an important part of Japanese sentences. Sentence-ending particles are often used to distinguish male and female speech as well. Online Translations Online translation services like Google Translate and Bing Translator are not always reliable, but you can get rough idea of the meaning in a pinch. Translation Services If your translation is something bigger or beyond your knowledge, you could seek professional help form a translation service.

INTERNATIONAL STUDIES IN BUSINESS Research Paper - 1

INTERNATIONAL STUDIES IN BUSINESS - Research Paper Example The Ottoman Turks started their conquest of Turkey in the early 13th century by overpowering the Turkish and Mongol bands and taking over the Christian Balkan states (Rhodes, 2004). The Turks captured Constantinople in 1453 and conquered Vienna about 200 years later. The Ottoman Empire, which dominated the region for approximately 600 years, collapsed politically, administratively, and economically after its defeat in World War I (Szczepanski, 2014). National hero Mustafa Kemal founded present day Turkey in 1923. Mustafa Kemal was honored with the title Ataturk which means ‘Father of the Turks’ Turkey is besieged with corruption and favoritism in government and daily life (Eroglu & Picak, 2011). The government has initiated some anti corruption measures; however the stringent implementation of these strictures still remains an issue. Turkish is the official language of the country. A vast majority, 90 percent, of the people in the country speak Turkish. In addition to Turkish, the Kurdish language is spoken by around 6 percent of the population. The other minority languages include Arabic, Circassian, Greek, Armenian and Judezmo (BBC Monitoring European, 2009). The Turkish society has a rich culinary culture which is evident from the vast variety of food items including eggplant dishes, salads, kebab, hamsi,  and pastrami  available in the country. The food habits of the Turkish vary according to geographic regions, socio-economic status, and religious structures and norms. The business culture in Turkey is pretty formal. Exchanging cards during the introductions is a norm. The Turkish are extremely hospitable and view foreigners as their guests. Meetings in person are preferred over telephonic conversations. Businesses thrive on relationships, trust and rapport with other stakeholders. Informal dresses in a business meeting are deemed to be lack of seriousness (Business Culture, 2014). Turkey is fundamentally a free-market economy where the

Economics development Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Economics development - Assignment Example I will carry out a randomized control trial among 482 rural Guatemalan households, split into 38 neighborhoods clusters, for twelve weeks. The target population in this randomized control trial will mainly consist of infants aged below one year. Each cluster randomly assigned to water treatment with the disinfectant will be compared with the ones that continue to use their normal water treatment practices. Only households that had not previously taken part in any prior studies shall be eligible for this study. The participating households will be grouped four neighborhoods within every village. Using a spreadsheet with a random number generator, half of the neighborhoods in each village will be assigned to the intervention group while the remaining will be assigned to the control group. Households in the intervention group will use the disinfectant which is manufactured from chemicals used in commercial water treatment plants but has been specifically designed to work fast in small q uantities of water. Field workers will administer the treatment to participating households. Participants in the control group continued their normal water collection, treatment and storage practices. A standardized questionnaire on water use will be filled weekly by each participating household to record whether each household will have had a case of diarrhea. Samples of drinking water stored by every household will also be collected by each household and measured to determine the chlorine concentration. The longitudinal prevalence of diarrhea among the 482 households will be computed as the fraction of total days with diarrhea divided by the overall number of days of observation. The prevalence of diarrhea will then be compared using a rank sum test. I will use data gathered from the randomized control trial to determine the existence of any adequate power to detect a variation in the prevalence of diarrhea between control children and intervention children aged below one

Corruption and Integrity

Corruption and Integrity Corruption and integrity are two forces contradicting with each other. Corruption are generally rampant on the society where integrity is not valued as it is to be.The society where corruption is reasonably controlled requires that all technical-institutional components like laws, regulations, procedures, surveillance and enforcement, judgment, reward and punishment be in place. This requirement is extremely important, and much attention has rightly been focused on it. Public and private institutions may have share many common corruption challenges. Any large-scale organization or a country that interacts with different kind of people, multiple suppliers and customers must ensure that politicians and / or employees do not take advantage of their entrusted powers and solicit bribes. Codes of conduct and promoting integrity alongside effective customer complaint, whistle blowing and financial tracking systems have been applied successfully in both areas of governance. Myanmar and Iraq are considered top most ranking corrupt nations in the world. Myanmar is located in the eastern part of the Asian continent, in a geographical area rich in natural and mineral resources, which provides significant economic potential. Hundreds of government officials were done on charges of corruption. Since then, this topic has remained highly politicized, limiting the room for third parties to address this issue. It does, however, remain pressing: in November 2004, the non-governmental organization Transparency International published its annual corruption perception index, with Myanmar ranking among the five worst countries surveyed (on 142nd place out of 145). In Iraq corruption is also rampant. Estimated confirms that the official corruption costs Iraq $5-7 billion per year as estimated by one senior Iraqi official. Notable steps have been taken: Iraq has a functioning audit board and inspectors general in the ministries, and senior leaders including the Prime Mi nister have identified rooting out corruption as a national priority. But too many political leaders still pursue their personal, sectarian, or party interests. There are still no examples of senior officials who have been brought before a court of law and convicted on corruption charges (Transparency International, 2008). In contrast, Denmark and Singapore are two of the least corrupt countries in the world according to transparency International. It has a highly developed market-based economy, which historically revolves around extended Centerport trade. Denmark is a country with high morale populations and effective leadrers (Stone Bain, 2008). Singapore has been rated as the most business-friendly economy in the world with thousands of foreign expatriates working in multi-national corporations. Singapore has a successful and transparent market economy (Mirza, 2006). Companies which are government-linked were dominant in the local economys various sectors, such as utilities, media, and public transport. Singapore has been consistently rated as the Asias least corrupt country and one of the worlds ten most free from corruption as reported by Transparency International (Transparency International, 2008). Myanmar and Iraq are considered as developing countries. In the last few years, corruption in the developing countries has come to the forefront of development thinking. Tight fiscal situations at home have made donor countries focus more on the impact of their aid to developing countries, raising concerns among bilateral and multilateral aid agencies over the effect of corruption on economic performance. At the same time, the trend towards democratization has made developing country government subject to a greater scrutiny and accountability from a broader segment of general public. Despite this, there remains a significant degree of ambivalence among many policy makers about the real impact of corruption in the economy. This less-than-enthusiastic response is due in part to the to the so called corruption puzzle. In a number of Asian countries, high rates of growth had been sustained over a long period despite high levels of corruption (Transparency International, 2008). Empirical evidence indicating that corruption impedes growth and investment has begun to emerge, with academics and scholars increasingly devoting more time to study the surrounding issues. These findings parallel to the emerging concerns of politicians and policy makers around the world about the deleterious effects of corruption on economic performance and increasing efforts to try to address the underlying causes. Corrupt actions are often rationalized by those who perform it. Two forms of corruptions that are partly susceptible to such rationalization are noble cause of corruption. In case of Myanmar, corruption induces performing actions for good end. Given the goal motive, this form of corruption is highly susceptible to rationalization. Unfortunately such actions notwithstanding the good motive are tainted. In particular, although the person who performs such actions might believe that he/she is doing what is right; this belief is a mistaken one (Svensson, 2005). The action is morally wrong. In contrast, Iraq is operating in Trans cultural and religious setting which is often finds it easy to rationalize away their engagement in corruption by invoking arguments, such as When in Rome, Do as Romans do. When one is operating in an environment in which one has, so to speak, no moral stake, such arguments can be tempting. This is especially the case if the condition conducive to corruption, fo r example, power imbalances, are in play. Unfortunately, the rationalizations for corruption that arise in transcultural setting do not in fact justify it (Miller et al, 2005). What values are needed to complement the system in Myanmar and Iraq or other corrupt nations? Obviously, a comprehensive answer is outside the scope of this paper. However, a core syndrome needs to be identified and focused on. That syndrome will include rationally decision making that leads to action which is effective in achieving purposes which it is intended to achieve. Important decisions of dubious rationality, or neglect of rational ones, are often made even if no corruption may have been intended (Svensson, 2005). The recurrent disasters involving seagoing vessels and loss of lives and property in the burning of discotheque place and hotel in recent years in these nations are at least partly results of lack of rationality in decision making. The rural character of Myanmar and Iraq as compare to Singapore and Denmark did not change significantly until the 1990s. In the meantime, the particularistic values and norms that have worked so well since the ancient times can continue to be emphasized over other values and norms, and help maintain public order (Kaing, Thet Aye 2005). However, in the rapidly urbanizing society, the same personality values and norms are no longer sufficient to cope with the decision making situations involving large concentrations of diverse populations. Commitment to more impersonal or universalistic norms has become necessary. It is evident, however, that at this historical juncture, Burmese or people of Myanmar generally continue to fit decisions to the more familiar and comfortable personalistic framework (United Nations, 2004). Ultimately, corruption adds inefficiency into a system and increases the risk for investors. Consequently, market prices are higher due to increased risk and increased transaction costs. Deep rooted corruption causes companies to rely on paying bribes as their main source of competitive advantage (Klitgaard, 2000). This is opposed to innovating, taking risks and becoming more efficient. Being morally corrupt is the lowest form of existence as they take advantage of the weak and most vulnerable in society through the pursuit of personal gain. By applying stakeholder theory, morally corrupt people have total disregard for the well being of people, and have no concern for the future well being of society. By applying strict principals, all forms of corruption are immoral as it does not benefit society over the long run. However, this should not be used as an excuse to partake in corruption indefinitely. One can morally partake in corruption provided that there is a net positive benefit for the society, and that the corrupt act is made with the intention of reducing overall corruption (Svensson, 2005). According to Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2009, p.4), morality refers to an ideal code of conduct, one which would be espoused in preference to alternatives by all rational people, under specified conditions. However, corruption is a highly subjective matter which depends upon persons, cultural, ethical, moral and religious backgrounds. A perception of person regarding the corruption also depends upon their understanding and education of corruption. Hence, it is difficult to define an ideal code of conduct that all rational people will abide by, even under specified conditions. In many cases, the seemingly black and white scenario has large portions of grey. Morality is a term that spans many meanings (Miller et al, 2005). It is shaped the countrys cultural, moral, ethical and religious backgrounds. Despite religious diversity throughout the world, morality at its core is shared by all of human kind. Religious scriptures and ancient philosophy echo similar beliefs; that we sh ould love our neighbor and take care of others less fortunate. Thus, these implications are commonly variable of corruptions in any country, specifically Myanmar and Iraq (Klitgaard, 2000). By removing corruption, we are creating value. In reality we sometimes need to partake in corruption in order to make progress. Just as important a component of this desired values outcomes, and the value that will be seen everywhere, is universalism. These are the foundations of countries with high level of integrity and low level of corruption. The concept is taken from Parsons and is interpreted in practical terms to mean valuing principles that apply to the larger group as opposed to select few. From these values is a derived lower level norm that regulates relationships among individuals in the larger society. These lower level norms include the application of the merit principle in the hiring, firing and promotion of personnel in organizations; the application of the first com first served principle in the making or delivery of claims; the use of rational criteria in delivering services to members of general public, in accounting for use of power and others (Svensson, 2005). There are variety of are possibility of ways to lessen the corrupt and unethical behaviors. In Denmark, there are programs implemented to monitor the budget allocation of each government officials as well as the organized system of Singapore. Unlike Myanmar and Iraq, there are no specified programs regarding these issues. There are some visible programs but it was inefficient in combating the corruption which is commonly committed by higher officials of the government. The members of the population, who recognize the importance of integrity and values, if they have not internalized this as central part of their value system and repertoire, may be in the minority at the present time, but they are there. The success of Singaporean working in organizations is one indication, as is the operation of such enclaves as the main factor for their economic success and unrivalled progress in Asia. What seems to be called for is the leadership and support that they need at the same time that efforts are made to increase their progressions. An effective leadership system that will promote progress and economic sustainability will be a great help, but so will more direct action at inculcating the appropriate values itself (Mirza, 2006). The ethical dimension of corruption activity does not consist simply of constraining rules and minimal standards, and certainly no simply of and legally enforceable rules and standards. In the first place, many principles and standards are not legally enforceable but are nevertheless highly ethically desirable. Anti-corruption system is one of the ways to lessen these deleterious activities. Anti-corruption system can be thought of as being both predominantly reactive and predominantly preventive. Naturally, the distinction is somewhat artificial, since there is a need for both reactive elements, for example, investigation and adjuration, as well as preventive elements, for example ethic training and transparency, and an adequate ant-corruption system. At any rate, there is a proposed to concise anti-corruption system under two broad headings, the reactive and preventive approaches. There are also subheadings in these approaches; promoting ethical behavior, corporate governance and p rerogative and transparency (Klitgaard, 2000). Denmark and Singapore employed different approaches from Myanmar and Iraq, their approaches to combat corruption in their country this is the main reason why there is very relatively small rate of corruption in these two countries. They used criteria in each approaches employed, manner of implementation, and results of the activities undertaken. The typologies and the specifications and examples given are worth looking at. In Denmark, leaders are being non institutional, characterized by spontaneity among adherents. It takes highly emotional and moralistic stance against corruption. Singapore value changes in actors of various institutions as a goal. In fact, in the approaches they implemented, the emphasis is on moral and legal, there is no provision for effective technical, legal and bureaucratic means in combating the corruption. These countries also emphasizes the use of institutional means to achieve stated goals, including legislative measures, anti-corruption bureaus and anti -corruption campaigns aimed at securing the cooperation of the public in the drive of corruption. This approach is led by their powerful rulers in their society and utilizes constitutional legal, organizational and procedural means to achieve a very high level goal; the elimination or eradication of corruption (Miller et al, 2005). REFERENCES: Transparency International (2008). Global Corruption Report 2008. Cambridge University Press. Svensson, J. (2005). Eight Questions about Corruption. Journal of Economic Perspectives-Vol.19. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Religion and Morality. 2 June 2009. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-morality Miller, S., Roberts, P., Spence, E. (2005). Corruption and Anti Corruption: An applied philosophical Approach: New York: Prentice Hall. United Nations. (2004). Strategic Framework for UN Agencies in Myanmar. Country Team in Myanmar Yangon: UN Country Team in Myanmar Kaing, Thet Aye (2005). New Government Accuses Super Power of Role in Yangon Bombings. The Myanmar Times. Klitgaard, R. (2000). Corrupt Cities: A Practical Guide to cure and prevention. Oakland California; ICS press Stone,A. Bain, C. (2008). Denmark?; Denmark delineated: sketches of the present state of that country? Mirza, H. (2006). Multinationals and the growth of the Singapore economy?

Leaders, Managers, Entrepreneurs on and Off the Organizational Stage*

Leaders, Managers, Entrepreneurs On and Off the Organizational Stage* Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff My purpose is to tell of bodies which have been transformed into shapes of different kinds. You heavenly powers, sinee you were responsible for those changes, as for all else, look favourably on my attempts, and spin an unbroken thread of verse, from the earliest beginnings of the world, down to my own times.Ovid: Metamorphoses Abstract Barbara CzarniawsicaJoerges Department of Business Administration, Lund University, Lund, Sweden Roif Woiff Gothenburg Research Institute at the School of Economics and Legal Science, Gothenburg, Sweden This paper explores three crucial roles of the organizational theatre: managers, leaders and entrepreneurs. Changing fashion in the organizational theory debate as well as in organizational practice puts different roles in focus at different times.Organization theory should, accordingly, shift its attention toward studying the contexts in which a given role acquires dominance, in place of an unreflective discussion of the relative functional advantages of each of them. This paper argues that none of the three will ever go out of fashion, as they can be seen as enactments of archetypes, embodying the different fears and hopes of those who create organizations by their daily performance.Leadership is seen as symbolic performance, expressing the hope of control over destiny; management as the activity of introducing order by coordinating flows of things and people towards collective action, and entrepreneurship as the making of entire new worlds. The sociohistorical context needs to be considered as the stage-set wherein these roles gain prominence. Introduction Organization Studies 1991, 12/4: 529-546  © 1991 EGOS 0170-8406/91 0012-0022 $2. 00 Leaders are in, managers are out, entrepreneurs are waiting in the corridor.What orders their appearances and disappearances? In an attempt to answer this question, we propose to an alyze all three roles, not in terms of organizational effectiveness, but as symbolic expressions of collective hopes and fears, played out (‘performed') on the organizational stage. Leaders, managers and entrepreneurs are supposed to serve certain functions in organizations — functions which are ascribed to so-called executive positions. The term ‘executive' comes from the times when managers were supposed to execute the owners' will.The separation of ownership and control (Chandler 1977) complicated this simple relationship, opening the way for discussions on the desired form of the executive role. This debate does not take place in a vacuum; it accompanies, reflects and influences changes in organizational practices and theories. Just which functions and in what configuration changes, both with theories and with time, because the definition of what executive functions should entail changes in line with master-ideas, whose time comes and goes (Czarniawska-Joerges and Joerges 1990).These, in turn, are related to 530 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff broader changes in the cultural context of organizing (Czarniawska 1986). An ambition to tackle the issues of context leads researchers to obviously relevant aspects such as changes in business cycles or changes in political climate. A study of these can of course, if treated with devotion, completely fill more than one research career, and yet there always remains something unanswered, a phenomenon unexplained, of a kind that conventional organization studies are poorly equipped to grasp.Perhaps the theatre metaphor (Mangham and Overington 1986; Czarniawska-Joerges 1992) would help in describing those ephemeral phenomena. What leads to a change in repertoire of a theatre, a replacement of comedy by tragedy, Shakespeare by Pinter? It is the decision of the management, the wishes of the primadonnas, the current cultural fashion, the economic exigencies — and much more. In the organiza tional theatre, the plays performed vary from one season to another, from one director to another, but the general repertoire seems to be quite traditional, even if it contains both tragedy, comedy and drama.It might be that the actual playwright is our ‘collective unconscious', to use Jung's term (1934); that in our attitudes toward the central organizational roles, i. e. leaders, managers and entrepreneurs we act out archetypes. This phenomenon escapes the analysts' attention because we are used to looking for articulation of archetypes in different spheres — in myths and legends (Hogenson 1987). In this discussion, we are dealing with ‘archetypes of personalities' rather than ‘archetypes of transformation' (Jung 1934/1959: 322).The latter are ‘typical situations, places, ways and means' according to Jung (p. 322), or what some would call ‘scripts' (Mandler 1984). The archetypes of personalities are ‘universal, idealized, larger-than-life symbols that contain the essence of human experience and that help individuals develop an emotionally satisfying picture of the world' (Krefting and Frost 1986: 164). In other words, we argue that the central organizational roles represent wishes and fears shared by organizational collectives; they are symbols which help to ascribe meaning to organizational events. It always seems to us as if meaning — compared with life — were the younger event, because we assume, with some justification, that we assign it of ourselves, and because we believe, equally rightly no doubt, that the great world can get along without being interpreted. But how do we assign meaning? From what source, in the last analysis, do we derive meaning? The forms we use for assigning meaning are historical categories that reach back into the mist of time — a fact we do not take sufficiently into account. (Jung 1934/1959: 317) In what follows we shall try to show that the continuing debate on t hose roles reaches indeed ‘back into the mists of time', and although we limit ourselves to a relatively short span of time there are plenty of traces pointing further back. Next, we shall attempt to demonstrate that the three roles are complementary in the sense that they answer different needs or fears of the collective unconscious. In this sense, no role is ever Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 53I out'; they all have their place in our collective consciousness, even if we at times tire of one and become fascinated with another. To bring out the core of these archetypes we shall look for their equivalents in literature and theatre, the traditional fields of symbolic expression. In doing so, we continue and extend the tradition of symbolic interpretation of executive roles (see e. g. Frost and Egri, forthcoming; Gustafsson 1984, 1985; Kets de Vries 1989, 1990a, 1990b; Westley and Mintzberg 1989). LeadersIn 1948, Robert Stodgill attempted to make a list of traits r esponsible for leaders' success, starting with a review by Charles Bird from 1940, which listed 79 traits important for successful leadership, as mentioned in 20 works reviewed. Stodgill updated the list to about 100 traits while observing that different authors did not agree on their importance. When he returned to the topic 26 years later in his book Handbook of Leadership, the number of leadership studies reviewed exceeded 3000 (Stogdill 1974).During the 1960s, the concept of organizational leadership began to shift from persons to behavioural styles and then toward the situational factors. Ghiseili (1963), Fiedler (1964), Bass (1960), and Umanski (1967) were among the best known authors who studied leadership and recommended that the leaders should begin by diagnosing the context of their action and should then act accordingly. By the 1970s, the interest in leaders diminished. There were at least two reasons.One was that, after three decades, researchersfinallyarrived at a conti ngency theory which proclaimed that leaders' success depends on the fit between their personalities (thus incorporating the trait theory), the type of action they choose (the style theory, with its origins in the seminal study by Lewin et al. 1939), and the situation (e. g. Fiedler 1964). This achievement, impressive at the time, was met with some derision twenty years later, when the waves of fashion came and went several times.Wildavsky's comments summarize it very well: ‘Unfortunately, multiplying traits of leaders, times types of followers, times samples of situations, times group interactions has led to more variety than anyone can manage. ‘ (Wildavsky 1984: 18) Another, and probably more important reason for abandoning the role of leadership was political frustration at the end of the 1960s. The young Americans saw their favourite leaders killed; the young French decided to remove their old, unpopular leaders themselves. McClelland's article on ‘Two faces of power' (1970) is a vivid example of anxieties suffered by the older generation in the U.S. when the youth rejected the traditional authority and the conventional career paths. According to this study, the graduates of Harvard and other schools did not want to be leaders anymore, seeing a dark face of power even behind the innocent organizational titles. 532 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff Managers Thus in the 1970s, charismatic leaders were distinctly out of fashion, and yet there was still a need for some sort of authority expression in organizations. The unpretentious ‘managers' took the place of leaders.However, ‘Fayol's fifty year old description of managerial work was no longer of use', observed Mintzberg (1971) in an early report from his famous study of the tasks of managers. A new approach was needed and the most typical model for a manager of the 1970s was perhaps Drucker's (1970) ‘effective executive'. The effective executives had no charisma what soever. The organizational reality pushed them towards ineffectiveness. Their time belonged to everybody else. They were forced to focus on operational exigencies to the detriment of reflection and strategic thinking.They were blinded by the walls of organizations, cutting off the worid outside. They were dependent on what other people did or did not do. To all these harassed people, Drucker formulated a message — a list of practices allowing for an increase in effectiveness, a set of pragmatic prescriptions on how to manage one's time, how to use accessible resources and how to make decisions (Drucker 1970). Problem-solving capacities were more important than social skills and decision-making ability conquered charisma, at least for a while.But power was again noticed, lurking behind this depersonalized, institutional facade. It has been said that the management-oriented researchers, like the early rationalist organization theorists, ‘. . . believed mankind had to shif t from the government of men to the administration of things, as their precursor Saint-Simon had claimed; and they felt they were achieving their aims by emphasizing financial stimuli and technical controls instead of human leadership. The delusion that they had suppressed power relationships prevented them from understanding the true nature of their own actions. ‘ (Crozier 1964: 146)In a sense, this is the same accusation as the one formulated eariier against the leaders, but with a different rationale behind it. While leaders did not understand the true nature of their actions, blinded by power, the managers were blinded by an illusion that they were free from power. This issue appears in the debate on both sides, pro-leaders and promanagers. The advocates of leadership say that there is so much power in organizations that it must be officially recognized, whereas the defenders of management tend to say that there are enough power games in organizations without giving them a n official status.To leave this circle, let us introduce a third voice. Entrepreneurs The story goes that long before there were any leaders or managers in the companies, there were entrepreneurs. These entrepreneurs created, in fact, the world of business organizations as we know them today, employ- Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 533 ing not so much charisma or intellectual capacities as something else: willpower. Let us thus make an excursion ‘into the mists of time'. In 1921, Josef Schumpeter published an article on the Unternehmer — the entrepreneur.In this not very well known article, he explored the character of the business company from a historical point of view, the function of the entrepreneur and finally the ‘modern' entrepreneur. Schumpeter saw the origins and functioning of companies as being based on two correlated facts: on the one hand, the property rights over the means and results of production; and, on the other, what he called a â €˜business mentality'. The latter led to the development of production techniques, a capitalist economic calculation and market communication structures.The combination of this capitalist mentality and capitalist property rights produced business companies, which became crucial elements of the contemporary cultures, but even more — they were, without doubt, ‘the basis for and the condition of such cultures' (Schumpeter 1921: 47). Thus, a given type of motivational force creates a given type of organization, which results in a given type of culture that, in turn, encourages such motivational forces and permits such organizations. When analyzing the 18th century, one can see entrepreneurs functioning both as employers and owners of capital.Schumpeter, however, had already noticed that these functions can be and are different, and that in modern companies one encounters two different types of people: managers and entrepreneurs. Management, according to Schumpeter, is a function consisting of control, of guaranteeing discipline and introducing order; a function requiring considerable daily, bureaucratic work. This function, necessary as it is, does not embody what is really characteristic of the capitalist economy. The importance of the entrepreneur is not the management of an existing company but the creation of such a company.Schumpeter perceived entrepreneurship as a specific case of social leadership. Such ‘social leaders' are not outstanding in their task abilities, but in their willpower. This willpower can be translated into contemporary language as ‘initiative', but, in this case, not an initiative of thought (for example, conception of new ideas), but an initiative of action. The core of entrepreneurial motivation is similar to that of leaders, but entrepreneurship mainly fits contexts which are new and cannot be dealt with by means of experience or routine.Entrepreneurship is leadership in exceptional situations and, we might add, is most likely to entail the creation of such situations. Schumpeter stressed repeatedly that entrepreneurship is never a matter of individuals only. It is a phenomenon which has to be analyzed and identified within a complex conglomerate of factors. In saying this, interestingly enough, Schumpeter seemed to anticipate the growing interest in what Mintzberg (1983) calls ‘configurations': complex, dynamic contexts where simple contingencies are not of much use. 34 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff This does not mean that one should neglect other functions. Any economy, at any time, is performing on the basis of existing experiences and routines. Therefore, there will always be a function which has to do with the supervision of these processes (and which we call ‘management'). Management, or the routine behaviour in production and business, enables economies to deliver promptly and act in accordance with the requirements of systems which are highly rational and therefore predictable.On the macro-level, though, many processes constantly change their situational equilibrium. There is a continuous growth of population and the means of production. There are also non-economic developments which are changing the economy: social developments, political influences, and so on. On the micro-level, the equilibrium ceases to exist when individuals see new possibilities, and strive to implement the innovations they have in mind. The concurrence of macro- and microchanges creates room for entrepreneurs.Paraphrasing Schumpeter's ideas in social constructionist terms, one can say that entrepreneurs are people who are the first to see a crack or aflawin a social construction of economic reality, and to interpret it as an opportunity to actualize their ideas of what the world should look like. As long as this vision is not shared by others, they have to live with an individually constructed reality, which is a heavy burden to bear. What seem to be anecdotal stories of mad inventors and innovators might be actually quite true, in the sense that the unsuccessful inventors are people whose reality did not become socially confirmed.Those who succeeded, though, are the makers of our worlds. Leadership Revisited The neo-conservatism of the 1980s brought to Europe, from beyond the ocean, various nostalgic notions such as ‘free market' and ‘leadership' (as opposed to ‘negotiated economies' and ‘codetermination', the keywords of the 1970s). As far as leadership was concerned, organization theory did not go far beyond Stogdill: offering many definitions, many brands of leadership and varying recipes for success (see e. g. Maccoby 1981; Bass 1985; Bennis and Nanus 1985).But it is ‘charisma' and ‘visions' that count most. Bernard Bass asks dramatically: ‘What does Lee Iacocca have that many other executives lack? Charisma. What would have happened to Chrysler without him? It probably would have gone bankr upt. ‘ (Bass 1984: 26) To which Robert B. Reich answers: ‘Many Americans would prefer to think that Lee Iacocca single-handedly saved Chrysler from bankruptcy than to accept the real story: a large team of people with diverse backgrounds and interests joined together to rescue the ailing company. ‘ (Reich 1987: 82)Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 535 Reich points out that public opinion would like to see lacocca as an entrepreneur, a solitary world-maker, rather than a leader who represents a team of people joined in a common effort. His critique aims at the public veneration of world-makers, based on nothing more than their own claim to fame. What is interesting to us, however, is the fact that Reich stresses the difference between the entrepreneurs as solitary worldmakers and leaders who actually lead other people toward a common vision.It has been repeatedly stressed, especially in analyses of political leadership, that leaders express and embody the wishes of their followers rather than impose those of their own. The romanticizing tradition, which Reich criticizes, tends to equip the heroes of the day with the capacities of leaders, entrepreneurs and managers all rolled into one, where they lead the masses to worlds of their own making, waiting for nature to cooperate. In practice, however, not only should the three roles be divided among different people, but even their performance should be brought much closer to reality.If one talks to people employed by organizations led by charismatic leaders, one discovers that they learn about their leaders' visions from the mass media (sometimes from internal videotapes) and that leaders themselves, busy in the TV studio, only have a vague idea of what is happening in their organizations (Schwartz 1989). Organizations are run with the help of Standard Operating Procedures — of which culture is perhaps the most powerful — and impersonal control processes, the latter initiat ed and fed by many different actors, none of whom accepts responsibility for the actual course of events.The remaining pockets of autonomy are filled with individual creativity and self-control which rarely comes from the leaders (on leaders' necessary distance from organizational action, see Brunsson 1989). So, what is leadership all about? In 1978, at the dawn of the new leadership era, a curious book was published, entitled Leadership: Where else can we go? (edited by McCall and Lombardo), which included contributions from the greatest authorities in the field (Jeffrey Pfeffer, Karl Weick, Louis Pondy). The articles challenged all the conventional visions of leadership and came up with new images.The most famous of these was perhaps Pfeffer's article ‘The ambiguity of leadership'. Pfeffer stated that there was not enough evidence to indicate ‘either the effect of leadership or, more significantly, the conditions under which leadership might be expected to have more or less impact on organizational outcomes' (Pfeffer 1977/1978: 23). Leaders serve as symbols representing the personal causation of social events. Such personal attribution of causality is a confirmation of the feasibility to control events, one of the most important stakes in human beings' fight against destiny. Occupants of leadership positions come to assume symbolic value, and the attribution of causality to those positions serves to reinforce the organizational construction of meaning that provides the appearance of simplicity and controllability. ‘ (Pfeffer 1977/1978: 29) 536 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff Creating this ‘illusion of control' over fate (Brunsson 1989; Czarniawska 1985) lies at the core of leaders' symbolic performance. Leadership should be seen as a political, symbolic process and understood and evaluated in this perspective.While accepting this postulate, we propose to extend the symbolic perspective to the two other roles: entrepreneurs and managers. Entrepreneurship Reconsidered The late 1980s saw a revival of a long forgotten role: that of the entrepreneur, which, for a while, seemed to be petrified in one epoch: that of early capitalism. The contemporary version of this role, embedded into monetary supply-side capitalism, is well described by Kaplan: ‘To get things done through individuals striking out on their own' (1987: 86). The role is ven better understood when contrasted with that of ‘drones' (Reich 1987), that is, those who keep the empires and the big conglomerates going. Entrepreneurs, in the 1990s as in the 1880s, create new social and organizational realities. They work against the existing social structure, not by opposing it by e. g. political means, but by behaving as if the existing structure did not exist. By ignoring the established ways of thinking and action, they make dreams come true. Drones are then the carriers of entrepreneurial ideas. ‘Entrepreneurs' and ‘drones' ali ke represent two extreme personalities, born by two extreme social realities.Today's societal and economic structures tend to moderate both. On the one hand, revolutionary innovation became complex and inordinately costly; on the other, the everyday running of empires requires innovation and social change. Also, the individualism of entrepreneurship contrasts with the realities of everyday life and family structures, at least in the western industrialized part of the globe where we live and work. The freedom for acting out male dreams is curbed by women's emancipation, followed by changing division of work at home, and women's attempts to acquire managerial positions.The dual career problems and ‘glass ceilings' discovered by women in the corporate context leads to more and more women opening small companies of their own. A growing proportion of entrepreneurial businesses in Europe and Africa have been established by women. History will show whether these new entrepreneurs wil l also fall into the luring trap of empire building supported by traditional economic success criteria, or whether they will redefine entrepreneurship by tying it to different archetypes. IVIanagement Defended ‘. . . he executive leader is not a leader of men only but of something we are learning to call the total situation. This includes facts, present and potential aims Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 537 and purposes of men. Out of a welter of fact, experience, desires, aims, the leader must find the unifying thread. He must see a whole, not a mere kaleidoscope of pieces. He must sec the relation between all the different factors in a situation. ‘ (Follet 1949: 51) It was with these words that, as early as the 1940s, Mary Parker Follet tried to defend the need for management — rather than just for leadership.In the 1970s, Zaleznik launched the insightful thesis that while leaders are needed in times of crisis and change, managers represent the every day rationality of welfare and affluence (Zaleznik 1977; see also Czarniawska-Joerges 1989). Machiavelli, it seems, wrote for managers and not for leaders. Leaders ‘sometimes react to mundane work as to an affliction' (Zaleznik 1977: 201). ‘They may work in organizations, but they never belong to them' (1977: 205). The 1980s brought in a heavier assault: managers lacked not only leadership but entrepreneurship as well.Always a gallant knight of management, Peter Drucker asserts that they are all the same: ‘Management is the new technology (rather than any specific new science or invention) that is making the American economy into an entrepreneurial economy (. . . ) Entrepreneurship requires above all application of the basic concepts, the basic techne, of management to new problems and new opportunities. ‘ (Drucker 1985: 17) The concept of ‘intrapreneurship' (Pinchot 1985) is, in fact, the most extreme attempt to join management and entrepreneurship in the service of large organizations.Roger Kaplan comments drily: ‘For society to work, you need more than robust little capitalists' (Kaplan 1987: 89). Managers stand for rationality, as Zaleznik rightly pointed out, and they have not disappeared. As late as 1986, Hales asked again ‘what do they do? ‘ on his way to ‘clarification and synthesis between managers' behaviour and the management function' (Hales 1986: 112). We shall now look at all three from a symbolic perspective only. In this endeavour, we shall look for help in archetypical personages known from belles lettres. This is, however, an illustratory device, and is arbitrary in character.The readers are encouraged to look for other images or metaphors which render explicit that which the archetypes project into perceptions of executive roles as designed by both the actors and their audience. Why Are Leaders So Attractive? As we see it, the most appropriate figure representing the leader's role is that of Moses. It embraces, for example, the three leadership archetypes distinguished by Frost and Egri (forthcoming): The Warrior, the Healer and the Magician. A perceptive analysis of Moses' political leadership, rendered by Wildavsky (1984), provides a good example of what is expected of a leader.It took Moses 40 years to take the Jews to their land, although 40 days would have been enough, but he had everything 538 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff that a leader should have: a visioti, a will to lead, atid a cotitact with God. We do not intend to follow Wildavsky's intricate reasoning. For present purposes, it suffices to notice that Moses represents the epitome of male and paternalistic leadership (a nursing father, Wildavsky calls him, although his nursing methods were rather cruel). His fate also indicates the primarily symbolic role of the leader: he never reached the Promised Land, he was not needed there.The problem with Moseses is, that they have a tendency to sacrific e people in the name of obscure external sources of legitimacy. Additionally, common sense and good organization is not their speciality. Moseses are good in crises, but otherwise they are not the most efficient. In everyday life one contacts a manager of a travel agency to go to Israel. Does it mean that leaders are not responsible for what happens, because they do not actually cause it? Edelman answers this question in the following way: ‘They do identify themselves with particular courses of action and inaction and so deserve responsibility for them.But the assumption that leaders have caused the events for which they take responsibility is reductionist because it ignores the consequences of historical developments, material conditions, and interpretations of those conditions. Except as minor elements of a complex transaction, leaders cannot provide security or bring about change. ‘ (1988: 65) An opposite type of leadership failure is the refusal to perform according to a script expected in given conditions. Maybe it is actually the other side of the same coin, that is, an erroneous belief on the part of the leader that he or she is truly a causative factor.What is then perceived as successful leadership, if it is not the act of bringing about a change? It is a dramatic performance which fulfils the expectations of both audience and co-actors, while retaining contradictions in the service of dramatic effect, but limiting negative and threatening aspects to a necessary minimum; and, above all, a skilful use of stage set and a talented improvization, tuned to prevailing moods (see also Westley and Mintzberg 1989). These are very demanding skills; additionally, high visibility and high costs connected to failure contribute to the market value of this role.Last but not least, high salary and high perks prove, in themselves, that the leader is who he is supposed to be: the person who controls fate. The successful performance confirms the accuracy of the attribution. Why Are Managers Least Liked? Like the leader, the manager has also a symbolic function to fulfil: that of introducing and keeping order, opposing entropy. But unlike the leader, he is not given the splendour of a Moses-like performance. He is a Miser, or worse still, a Scrooge, without imagination, with his ridiculous common sense and care for money and things.Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 539 There are probably many mythical biographies representing the archetype of a manager. We took the Miser for his obvious similarity to an accountant. Misers are clearly comic characters, and we gladly laugh at them, as much as we need them. In the course of organizational life, however, this laughter becomes often bitter. Misers have a strong tendency to treat people as things. ‘Could anything be more cruel than this rigorous economy he inflicts on us, this unnatural parsimony under which we perforce languish? {The Miser, Act One) This is Cleante speaking t o Elise, but wouldn't we like to join him and La Fleche (‘A plague on all misers and their miserly ways! ‘) whenever we have spoken to our money-controllers? If the great leaders sometimes do a great deal of good by being othewise occupied (speaking to some god or other on some faraway mountain), managers sit at home, and manage: ‘Let us have you all in here. I want to give you instructions for this evening see that everybody has his job. Come here. Dame Claude, we'll start with you (. . . ) Your job is to clean up all round, and do be careful not to rub furniture too hard.I'm afraid of your wearing it out. Then, I'm putting you in charge of the bottles during the supper. If there's a single one missing or if anything is broken I shall hold you responsible and take it out of your wages. ‘ (Harpagon, The Miser, Act Three) A manager would, of course, find out the shortest way between Egypt and Israel and the cheapest means of transportation, and where would we be with our legend? Boland and O'Leary's (1988) amusing and insightful analysis of images of accounting in advertising illustrates this point very well.The advertisement artists attempted to project an image of a creative controller supported by clever machines but the laughable picture of a man with sleevelets and glasses always crept in. The enemy of creativity and change, the Miser nevertheless symbolizes order, the value which is just as indispensable to organization as control over the fate which Moses promised to his people. At any rate, manager is the one with the truly economic mind, ridiculous as it might seem to all who care about higher things. Why Are Entrepreneurs Admired and Feared? Who are entrepreneurs in terms of their dramatic performance?It is difficult to say as, unlike leaders and managers, who are limited to the political and/or organizational stage, entrepreneurs represent an everyman's dream of the successful life. They are Columbuses, treasure-hunters and Ho ratio Alger's heroes all in one. Their task is to create new worlds, often with a mainly pecuniary interest in the background. In a sense, their play is most often a tragedy, while leaders come from a drama and managers from a comedy. They might become Macbeths if things go wrong, but also inventors like Faust, who wanted to be immortal and succeeded — indeed, it depends on very individual moral judgement as to 40 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff whether we see Faust as a failure or as a total success. When successful, entrepreneurs acquire God-like (or Satan-like) properties in eyes of the rest of the people: those who can create worlds are to be both worshipped and feared. In the beginning was meaning — In the beginning was power — In the beginning was action — (Faust) How can one translate Faust's dreams into modern economic terms? One possibility is some version of the American Dream, joining the archetype of the adventurer and the entrepreneur . Take, for example, the story of Uncle Jake.In 1929, Uncle Jake left his family home and the horse-breeding farm inherited from his father in Connecticut for Alaska. His mother and friends stayed behind — that is, those friends who did not commit suicide after the Great Depression. The crash did not, however, influence Uncle Jake, neither economically nor psychologically: his optimism seemed enhanced by the dramas around him. This is how John Hawkes' epos Adventures in the Alaskan Skin Trade (1942) starts. It builds up a character similar to Ragged Dick and other Horatio Alger stories, but makes it clear that the economic success is only a means and not the end in itself, as in Faust.Ragged Dick, for example, was a self-made man, the intrepid capitalist, a person who became rich and made others happier by gambling on a new product or innovation. But Uncle Jake never got really rich. He stands for freedom, creativity and dream-building. The materialistic character of the drea m has to do with another aspect of the American Dream — success as measured by money (which in old Europe was usually measured by pohtical influence). The social costs Jake created by going to Alaska were enormous.He barely noticed his wife's death; his daughter became a prostitute (there were not many ways for symbolizing women's failure in life in those days) until the day when she managed to free herself from his influence and could reflect on her father: ‘He was an artist of adventurous life. The exclusivity of the adventure was more important to him than the treasures he constantly promised to me and my mother'. In the eyes of the daughter Jake was not an entrepreneur at all. He was only speaking as such. We are reminded of Iacocca again: has he created a world or did he only speak as if?In a radical thought of Goodman (1978), this difference is immaterial. Until somebody comes with a better story, Iacocca will remain the author of Chrysler's success in the eyes of the public. In his incisive analysis of the case of El-Sayed (the former chairman of a Swedish company who, after a dazzling success, ended up in prison), Kets de Vries observes: ‘All entrepreneurs need dreams, but in dreaming they are not always effective in distinguishing fact from fancy' (1990a: 683). When they succeed, this very trait is seen as a source of their success. Leaders On and Off the Organizationai Stage 541When they fail, they fail for the same reason. The line between a ‘dream' and a ‘distortion of reality' is a tentative one. But all of them, Fausts and Jakes and Dicks, have one thing in common; they leave behind a trail of broken hearts, crushed realities and, in general, extremely heavy costs (they are no Misers! ) In order to better contrast entrepreneurs with managers we can take another real-life but mythologized example, that of Columbus. As 1992 comes close and both Seville and Genoa are preparing for great celebrations, it becomes clear t hat Columbus ‘discovered' America due to his ignorance and mythomaniac tendencies.An Italian physician with a passion for geography told him, on the basis of several wrong estimations, that it is feasible to reach India by going there on an Eastern route. It has been said, by Columbus apologets, that he discovered America whereas other, better educated entrepreneurs did not. Actually, they did not because they were managers — in the positive sense of the word. Apparently, the Portuguese navigators knew very well that such a continent existed, had all the estimations correct, and planned the discovery of America as a next project after having reached India via the Western route.Whereas most of the Columbus biographers ridicule mental rigidity and lack of intuition on the part of the ‘managers' from the Portuguese School of Navigation, the more mundane interpretation would have it that they did not go to India via America because they knew it was impossible. As an a dministrator of the new land, Columbus and his two brothers gave an incredible show of incompetence and cruelty, to the extent that Ferdinand and Isabella were forced to call them back and appoint a new administrator.Such is then the story of Columbus — a real entrepreneur, as opposed to Columbus as a mythical personage (Mendelssohn 1976), but in both versions one thing is clear: entrepreneurs tend to trample over old worlds in their attempts to create new. Why should they be so hailed and respected, then? Because they also bring change, building new realities on the ruins of the old. Personages and Processes As we have attempted to show, it is an illusion that one role ‘conquers' the remaining two.We could go further and further back and, most likely, find the same (as Crozier's example of Saint-Simon already indicates): theoreticians quarrelling about which role is the best, and practitioners playing all three. The fashion of the day elevates one role above the other and then abandons it again. Now we need order, next we need change, and then we need to control our fate. What shapes the fashion, then? Reading the organization theory debate as it has evolved over the last 70 years, one acquires an impression that a demand for leaders, managers or 542 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Woiff ntrepreneurs is dictated by organizations themselves — straight to the researchers' ears. Then, in an intellectual discourse about the functioning of organizations, the researchers establish which properties the executives should have. They inform the practitioners about what is desired and the practitioners try to follow norms as well as they can. The next wave of research results and theories brings new developments to light, the theory is perfected and the practice follows suit. Such an egocentric representation can be sustained only as a result of firm isolation from the political, social and economic context of organizing.Indeed, with few and unsyst ematic exceptions, organizational literature neglects what is happening in the world around organizations. Sometimes a simple agent called ‘market' comes into the picture, but even then just as a part of ‘environment' which is, indeed, more and more what organizations managed to enact around themselves. Organizations, the open systems, are for ever immortalized in a closed system of an artificially created frame of reference. We would like to point out that organizations act in historically shaped economic and political circumstances.If we bring these into the picture, the leadership debate can be portrayed, for example, as follows: Figure 1 1920s 1929 1930s 1939-1945 1940s 1950s An Historical Speculation Entrepreneurs Depression (economic crisis) Leaders WAR (poiiticai crisis) Managers Entrepreneurs (economic hope) 1960s 1968 1970s 1973-1975 1980s 1990s Leaders (poiiticai crisis) Managers (economic crisis? ) Leaders Entrepreneurs? The 1920s seemed to herald a recovery f rom the economic disaster of the 1st World War and the entrepreneurs were called for to create prosperity with their innovative thinking. The Great Depression brought an abrupt end to this dream.Frightened and in despair, people called for leaders. And leaders they got: Hitler, Stalin, Mussolini, Churchill, Roosevelt. We shall not plunge into what many historians, on many occasions, have analyzed with delight; was it chance, a historically determined development, or all of those. We assume that people try to attribute meaning both to random events and to planned action. It is this factor that stands for the continuity in the process, and not mechanically connected chains of causes and effects. The war made people wary of leaders and gave rise to operational research in the U. S. A.Managers were also welcome in Europe where a big job of restructuring the post-war economies was started. It became possible to think in terms of economic challenge, not only in terms of economic necessity . Entrepreneurs acquired room to play. Slowly, the Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 543 prosperity became feasible and leaders were needed again, to push forward and expand their successes. The imperialist ambitions and the failure of new, democratic leaders brought the political unrest of the Sixties. Throughout the rational 1970s, managers were in vogue, to introduce some order and rationality into the world.The oil crisis, however, left in its wake the realization of a possible world-wide economic crisis. People turned to leaders again. As the crisisfeeling dissolved, however, the leaders were somewhat diminished in importance. It was Gorbachov, at least so long as he behaved as a political entrepreneur, who collected the popularity laurels. This is, of course, only one of several possible stories. We do not claim the monopoly on the one and only true story — rather, we would like to see more historical organizational research that traces down social, and not qu asi-biological (as in population ecology) developments.Additionally, such stories would have to pay increased attention to the rhetorics that are used in telling them (McCloskey 1986). In this paper, for example, we have used what is considered to be a chauvinist language: we have spoken of executives as if they were men. This was done on purpose: the dramatical metaphors gave us an additional insight into a matter that is becoming fashionable now, namely, why are there so few women leaders? Simply, the roles are not the female roles.There are, of course, some convincing performances, especially by female Moseses, such as Ghandi or Thatcher, but nevertheless their performance is reminiscent of Shakespearean times when men performed all female roles: brilliant but artificial. Archetypical female roles are hard to fit into modern organizations: neither Dame aux Camellias nor Mother Svea have good chances, at least not in executive roles. In this respect, the organizational theatre has a very traditional repertoire. Researchers As Theatre Critics The question that concludes our paper and, hopefully, starts a discussion is: What should — or can — researchers do?Shall we contribute to the debate as participants? Shall we attempt to unmask and deconstruct it? Shall we write new scripts or ironize the old ones? Holding to our theatre metaphor, we see our choice as analogous to that facing the theatre critics. We can opt for what we ourselves like best, or prompt the directors to keep the public content, or to keep the public on its toes. Over time, however, we should be able to arrive at a more systematic reflection on the organizational theatre. It would be illuminating to be able to follow the process of ppointing and dismantling the ‘favourites' in the social consciousness; to see when and how people reach to the repertoire of archetypes to exchange the last one for another. 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